Although the ability to **think critically** was important at all times, those who will live in the XXI century, without it simply can not do. For the first time in the history of mankind there was a danger that we are capable of destroying all life on our planet. The decisions that we take as individuals and as members of society, whether these decisions affect the economy, conservation of natural resources, or the development of nuclear weapons, will affect future generations of peoples around the globe. In addition, we have to make decisions on a number of important issues that are local or private. For example, in recent elections, voters had to decide whether they were for or against increasing the tax on income from real estate, building a canal that would divert water from one part of the state to another, mandatory testing of criminals for AIDS, and an order to limit rent.
Despite the obvious need for many in higher education, only in recent years, teachers have engaged in the development of training programs aimed at improving the thinking abilities of students. It is difficult to imagine a sphere of life where the ability to think clearly would not be necessary. However, only a few of us have ever explained how you can learn to think more productively. Our educational institutions traditionally demanded that students learn, memorize, analyze facts, solve problems, but these institutions did not show the students exactly how to do it. It was understood that adult students already "know how to think." Studies have demonstrated, however, that this assumption is not justified in practice. Psychologists found that only 25% of first-year students have the skills necessary for logical and abstract thinking - this type of thinking that is required, for example, to answer the question: "What will happen if ..." and for evaluating abstract ideas. This situation was briefly summarized by Brock, the former head of the Republican Party, and at the moment a well-known consultant on international issues. After reading a recent report on the low level of cognitive and mental abilities of college graduates, he exclaimed: "Everyone must be horrified!".
## Thinking and knowing
... Everything that is known to us, and everything that is known to all people - that is, all existing knowledge - was created by someone. When we study Euclidean geometry, we use the knowledge created by the great mathematician Euclid. Similarly, all other outstanding discoveries and inventions, such as the wheel, shoes, video games, toilet paper, the formula E = mc ^ 2 and the "discovery of America", are the knowledge created by people. Knowledge is not static. It can not be transferred from person to person, just as we are pouring water from a vessel into a vessel. It is dynamic. Of course, it's naive to think that we should all start from scratch and reinvent the wheel. We rely on knowledge created by someone to create new knowledge.
We create knowledge whenever we become acquainted with new concepts and ideas. The information we have just received is used by us to create our own internal knowledge structures. (Knowledge structures are something like a technical term used by cognitive psychologists to describe all the interconnected representations that each of us has about a variety of subjects and phenomena.) Knowledge is a "state of understanding" inherent only in the consciousness of a particular person.
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This is something that we can share in the process of communicating with another person. We use our knowledge to understand new information. Thus, the acquisition of knowledge is an active mental process. Each person builds "expanding knowledge structures" that connect new ideas with those already known, so knowledge is always personal and in some way unique. These structures, or schemes, of knowledge are our personal internal representation of the nature of the world. By combining them with other schemes, we create new knowledge. This thought was expressed more eloquently by Reznik: "Knowledge is no longer considered a reflection of what was given to a person from the outside: it is an individual construction that a person attaches to meaning by relating elements of knowledge and experience with some organizing scheme."
## Working definition of critical thinking
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Although specialists in psychology and related sciences have proposed several definitions of the term critical thinking, all these definitions are quite similar in meaning. Here is one of the simplest, conveying the essence of the idea: critical thinking is the use of cognitive techniques or strategies that increase the probability of obtaining the desired final result. This definition characterizes thinking as something distinguished by controllability, validity and purposefulness, a type of thinking that is used in solving problems, formulating conclusions, probabilistic evaluation, and making decisions. At the same time, the thinker uses skills that are grounded and effective for a particular situation and the type of problem being solved. Other definitions further indicate that critical thinking is characterized by the construction of logical reasoning, the creation of coherent logical models and the adoption of reasonable decisions as to whether to reject any proposition, agree with it, or temporarily postpone its consideration. All these definitions imply a mental activity, which should be aimed at solving a particular cognitive task.
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The word critical, used in the definition, assumes an evaluation component. Sometimes this word is used to convey a negative attitude towards something, for example, when they say: "She reacted to the film very critically." But evaluation can and should be a constructive expression of both a positive and a negative attitude. When we think critically, we evaluate the results of our thinking processes - how correctly the decision we made or how successfully we coped with the task. Critical thinking also includes an assessment of the thinking process itself - the course of reasoning that led to our conclusions, or those factors that we took into account when making a decision. Critical thinking is sometimes also called directional thinking, because it is aimed at obtaining the desired result. Dreams, dreams, and other types of mental activity, which we do not pursue for a specific purpose, do not belong to the category of critical thinking. Similarly, the thinking that is behind our daily habits is not critical. For example, when we get up in the morning from bed, brush our teeth and go the familiar way to school or work, our thinking is focused on a certain goal, but practically does not involve a conscious evaluation of the actions we are doing. All these are examples of non-directional, or automatic, thinking.
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Although psychology has been studying the process of thinking for almost a whole century or more as an academic discipline, cognitive psychology, that is, a branch of psychology that studies the nature of thinking and knowledge, has played a truly dominant role in scientific psychology over the past 20 years. Cognitive psychologists set themselves the task of studying techniques and strategies that are used to solve problems, construct reasoning and make decisions. They are also interested in how these abilities depend on the intellect. This close interest in thought processes gave birth to a new field of psychology, which was called teaching cognitive processes. Its task is to use the knowledge we have accumulated about the processes and mechanisms of human thinking to help people improve their thinking abilities. For example, when studying the correct and wrong actions of a person in various situations, psychologists found that the spontaneous and intuitive approach of many people to solve various problems often turns out to be erroneous. Moreover, scientists can often predict when an incorrect decision will be made by virtue of the very nature of the problem, and when - because of the misunderstanding of this task by the decisive person. The knowledge accumulated in this area is already being applied in practice in solving many practical problems - from teaching military card reading skills to developing computer programs with a convenient and intuitive interface.
## Is it possible to change your thinking?
The intention to influence human thinking may seem somewhat daunting. Immediately recall words such as control over thoughts, propaganda, or the image of the Big Brother, who knows all your thoughts, from Orwell's novel "1984". In reality, critical thinking is an antidote to the very control of thoughts that Orwell was so concerned about. Training in clear thinking skills can help everyone to recognize propaganda and thus not become a victim, to analyze the false grounds in the argumentation, to see the blatant deception, to determine the reliability of one or another source of information, and to think in the right way every task or decision that is being made.
When I talk about critical thinking with students or other people with whom I have to communicate, I am sometimes told that there is no such thing as critical thinking, because there can be very different opinions on the same issue, and everyone has the right to his point of view. They prove to me that there is no "better way to think". I, of course, agree that we all have the right to our own opinion, but some opinions are still better than others. If, for example, you are convinced that it is good for pregnant women to consume alcohol in large quantities, you will have to reinforce this belief with weighty arguments (there are no such arguments in this case). (Stricter definitions of terms of opinion and conviction are presented in Chapter 5.) The opposite assumption - that pregnant women should drink very little if they should at all do so, can be confirmed by carefully conducted laboratory studies that testify to the detrimental effect of alcohol on developing fetus. Similarly, everyone has the right to believe in astrological predictions and extrasensory perception, but at the moment there is no strong evidence in favor of such beliefs. Not all beliefs are equally justified.
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Let's look at some examples of the need for critical thinking in a wide variety of spheres of life. It is most convenient to start with advertising. Advertisers pay huge sums for the opportunity to convince buyers to purchase their products. An advertising campaign is considered successful, if after its carrying out the demand for the advertised goods has grown and the amount from its additional realization turned out to be more than advertising expenses. One of my favorite examples is advertising cigarettes. As you probably know, every tobacco advertisement should have the following warning: "Smoking harms your health." One would assume that these words will be associated with a dry cough, yellow plaque on the teeth and lung cancer, thereby reducing the effectiveness of any cigarette advertising. In contrast to this warning, cigarette ads often feature smokers surrounded by virgin nature with clear lakes, blue skies and tall green pines. On one of the advertising posters you can read: "Come to where cleanliness". Another classic advertisement of cigarettes reads: "Live at your pleasure" - an attempt to influence those who have smoking associated with premature death.
Have you ever thought about the relationship between smoking and the beauty of nature? Maybe when smoking is associated with beautiful people on a beautiful background, it seems more healthy. One of the brands of cigarettes is called "Malibu". Their advertising posters depict the soft white sand and frothy blue ocean near Malibu Beach in California - the ideal setting for relaxing "beautiful people." This splendid picture, coming to mind at the sight of the mentioned brand of cigarettes, should obscure the image of the patient, greedily clinging to the oxygen pillow - an image that has a much closer relation to smoking.
Another example of how critical thinking is needed is the talk about detergent advertising, which I once had with a taxi driver. My interlocutor said that he does not pay any attention to advertising and that she does not influence his choice when buying goods. Then he added that he always buys a blue washing powder that is good for washing the "dirty circle on the collar". Do not you see contradictions in his words? Although he assured that advertising does not affect him, in fact it was she who determined what he was buying. I am sure that many did not show any concern about the "circles on the collar," the "yellow grease" on the sink, "dandruff," or "leaking elbows," until the advertisers told us that we would be in an unenviable position in society if we will ignore these details. Such advertising tacitly implies that the "problems" to which it points (dark stripes on the shirt collar or not quite clean the sink) are very serious, but can be eliminated if you acquire the advertised product. For example, a taxi driver, having taken the problem of a "circle on the collar" close to his heart, bought as a result the advertised product, not even suspecting that someone was influencing his thoughts and actions.
During a recent election campaign, one candidate told voters that he was against corruption, pollution, crime and bureaucrats who paid too much. His speech was greeted with loud applause. Why do I pay attention to his words? Because he did not say anything at all. I have never heard that any candidate was for corruption, pollution, crime or high salaries for officials. Voters should be asked to name more specific goals and explain how he intends to achieve them and where he will take the money to finance his projects.
Nine-year-old American children were asked to solve the following problem: "Jason bought three boxes of pencils, what else do you need to know to determine how much he bought pencils?". Only 35% of the respondents realized that they needed information about how many pencils were in each box. Here is another task proposed to a large group of 13-year-olds: "An army bus holds 36 soldiers.If there are 1128 soldiers to be taken to the landfill, how many buses will it take?". Most students easily made the necessary calculations. The difficulty was to give an answer to the meaning. Many rounded the result to the nearest whole number and decided that it would take 31 buses. Others gave the answer in the form of a decimal fraction (31.33) or indicated the rest of the separation. The task was not to demonstrate elementary computational skills, but to find a response that could be considered acceptable in this case, and to apply a method different from that taught in the school - the answer had to be rounded to the nearest larger whole number, and not just to the nearest whole number. Perhaps simple examples like this give the most convincing answer to the question of whether it is necessary to teach critical thinking. The most expensive commodity in America is thinking and educated adults. The goal of the education system should be to have as many of them as possible.
## EVIDENCE THAT THINKING IS POSSIBLE TO IMPROVE
>Everyone agrees that students in college are studying, but whether they are learning to think is a contentious issue. Wilbert J. McKeechi
If you thought about whether you can learn to think more effectively, then you probably have a question if there is evidence that thinking can be improved. ... We currently have a lot of evidence that training courses in thinking skills give a positive effect, which can be used in a variety of situations. A number of evaluating studies of the results of such courses differed in principle from their form. Summarizing their results gives all grounds to believe that with the help of training it is quite possible to develop a person's ability to think critically, especially if this training is aimed at applying the acquired skills in different situations and different fields of knowledge. Indeed, it is difficult to name such an aspect of critical thinking that can not be taught and that can not be mastered. We study mathematics, hoping that we can use mathematical knowledge in everyday life, where they often need. Similarly, we teach children the skills of speaking and writing, believing that they will be able to use these skills when they speak or write on any topic.
Here is a short list of some facts that support the arguments that the skills of critical thinking can be learned during the class and can be used later in various situations:
1. An analysis of the nationwide training program on thinking skills in Venezuela showed that students attending the training sessions on thinking technology showed higher results in oral discussions and in written essays on a given topic than the students in the control group that was compared. This study is especially noteworthy because the essays and verbal answers were evaluated "blindly", ie, the reviewers did not know whether the students they had studied had gone through the training of thinking skills, or whether they were part of the control group. The results of this program show that the acquired thinking skills were appropriately used when students were offered unexpected topics for them.
2. According to the feedback of college students, most of them are convinced that their ability to think critically has increased markedly after completing a course in thinking skills. Students began to rank themselves higher on a range of self-assessment scales, including the ability not to rush to make judgments, the ability to assess contradictory statements, use probabilistic estimates, and take into account the uncertainty factor. They also note that they learned to apply various heuristic methods, such as the "by contradiction" method, excluding unnecessary data and assessing the reliability of the information source when solving problems. Of course, to consider that one's own ability to think critically has increased is far from being the same as demonstrating in practice the improvement of this ability, but it must be said that the students' own assessments are consistent with other data.
3. A study was also conducted that showed that college students who have attended a course in critical thinking demonstrate much higher results in standard intelligence tests. Although one can be skeptical of any statement that the human intellect has grown after several classes, these data are additional evidence of that. that courses on teaching critical thinking give a positive result.
4. Other researchers have determined that a course of training in critical thinking, which was consistent with the college program, contributed to the growth of cognitive capabilities of adults. Cognitive development was assessed according to the method developed by the well-known psychologist Jean Piaget and considered the reference in the analysis of cognitive growth. This is an impressive result, if we take into account the following fact: when evaluating the indicators proposed by Piaget, it turned out that only 25-50% of first-year students have the skills necessary for abstract and logical thinking.
5. A fruitful approach in the study of changes in thinking is to study how knowledge is represented in the human mind. Although the theoretical basis of this technique is beyond the scope of this book, the results of such studies are easy to evaluate. Schönfeld and Hermann, for example, found that when college students were taught general thinking skills, they performed different tasks much better than students who had been trained in a traditional program. In addition, these students, unlike the students of the control group, organized a mental presentation of the material they offered in the same way that experts usually do.
6. Using a similar technique, Fachione determined that college students who attended the critical thinking course showed better results in the test in which they had to choose one of the answers, than the students who did not receive such training. Successes in similar tests were also noted by Lehmann, Lempert and Nisbett in college students. They came to the conclusion that the knowledge obtained during the preparation, during which the general "rules" of thinking are given, can be transferred to other areas of activity. Similar conclusions were drawn by Fong, Kranz, and Nisbett, who summed up their studies as follows: "A number of experiments have shown that cognitive abilities can be improved through formal training."
7. To test the ability of adult students to master the thinking skills and apply them in practice, Lehmann and Nisbett examined how well students can use their knowledge outside the classroom. They called the students home a few months after completing those training courses and asked questions in the guise of a public opinion poll. For example, students could be asked to comment on a successful series of matches held by some rising star of the baseball league. Those who were trained in critical thinking could determine that in this case a general statistical principle is important. The results confirmed the assumption that students have learned and can quickly apply the thinking skills to which they were taught in class. Moreover, this ability is preserved when questions are asked in the usual everyday situation - at home - several months after the end of the class and touch on other topics.
8. In 16 chapters of the recently published book, edited by Nisbett, a large amount of data is presented convincingly showing that the skills of logic, statistics, deduction and evaluation analysis can be grafted in such a way that they will be applied by students in a variety of situations. Another series of studies that noted the positive results of teaching critical thinking, is described in Brewer. A similar conclusion is made in an independent review of the literature.
All these diverse materials lead us to the same conclusion: college students can be taught to think more critically if we conduct studies with them that are subordinate to this task. It is necessary to strive to ensure that training in various methods of critical thinking is paid attention to every lesson in college and that students learn to apply the skills obtained in any situation. The evaluation of studies comparing several groups of students, however, gives grounds to assume that the results are most noticeable when the course of study is aimed solely at developing critical thinking. Critical thinking does not automatically appear as a side effect of conventional learning in some area. To achieve the expected effect, it is necessary to make systematic efforts to improve thinking. In order for students to fully and consciously focus on improving their thinking abilities and expand the scope of the acquired skills, teaching critical thinking should include a large number of examples from different spheres of life.
## Practical application of the acquired skills
In all the studies mentioned above, which confirmed the effectiveness of teaching critical thinking, the universalization of critical thinking skills was studied. The real purpose of any learning to improve thinking is to apply the skills gained in practice. In practice, I mean using critical thinking skills in a wide variety of situations. This book will not be much use if these skills are used only in the classroom or in solving problems similar to those that are considered in the classroom. Ideally, critical thinking skills should be used to identify impractical pre-election promises, arguments that themselves need proofs, incorrect probabilistic assessments, weak arguments, or purely rhetorical constructs. People who think critically must deal better with the solution of problems of real life, whether it is the threat of a nuclear war or the setting up of a newly purchased VCR. These skills, in addition, must have a lasting effect and be useful during the decades of critical thinking that most of us have ahead of us. These tasks are not at all abstract. They are very specific and relevant. The best way to ensure application in practice, which I'm talking about, is to do this with the help of conscious and thoughtful use of the skills that you learn in a variety of situations. Students can expand the scope of this application, looking for examples that require critical thinking, and using them.
The tasks and exercises presented in the compendium supplementing this book are intended to show the universality of this application in practice. The collection contains a large number of types of tasks on various topics. Solving these problems, you rather remember and, if necessary, use the thinking skills presented in the book in everyday situations. There are many factors that determine how high the probability that you will apply the thinking skills obtained in one area of knowledge to another, but we know for certain that it is possible and feasible. Find other cases when you can use these thinking skills, and apply them!
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*References for Text and Images:*
1. http://centerfornaturalhealthcareredwing.com/radio-shows/2016/1/11/change-your-thinking-change-your-life-part-2
2. http://www.adam-eason.com/critical-thinking-importance-ways-improve/
3. https://www.chronicle.com/article/Beyond-Critical-Thinking/63288
4. https://medium.com/designerd/computer-brain-analogy-5cf69a0bad20
5. https://www.slideshare.net/wahlquist/critical-thinking-skills-19096636
6. https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/what-importance-benefits-critical-thinking-skills-islam
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